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Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, July 2000, p. 1869-1873, Vol. 44, No. 7
Departments of Microbiology and
Immunology1 and
Dermatology,2 University of Texas
Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Department of Pathology,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United
Kingdom3; and 3M Pharmaceuticals,
St. Paul, Minnesota4
Received 13 December 1999/Returned for modification 13 March
2000/Accepted 25 April 2000
Imiquimod (IQ) has been successfully used in treatment of genital
warts. In clinical settings, patients responded well but wart reduction
rates varied. Our aim was to find a correlation between clinical
responses and pretreatment (constitutive) levels of genes that might be
involved in the molecular action of IQ. Since IQ is a cytokine inducer,
we analyzed levels of expression of genes of the JAK/STAT signaling
pathway and their inhibitors as well as interferon response factors
(IRFs) in pretreatment biopsy specimens from complete responders (99 to
100% wart reduction rate) versus incomplete responders (75 to 92%
wart reduction rate) by reverse transcription-PCR. We found that mRNA
levels of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1)
and IRF1 were higher in complete responders than in incomplete
responders. Incomplete responders expressed larger amounts of STAT3,
IRF2, and protein inhibitor of activated STAT1 (PIAS1) mRNAs compared
to complete responders before IQ treatment. We hypothesize that
high-level expression of STAT1 and IRF1 is advantageous for a better IQ
response. The observed differences in constitutive mRNA levels of these genes may be the consequence of alterations in cellular differentiation and/or variable expression of endogenous interferons. Previous in vitro
studies showed that keratinocyte differentiation coordinates the
balance between positive and negative signals along the JAK/STAT pathway by regulating the IRF1:IRF2 and STAT1:PIAS1 ratios and thus
affecting induction of IQ-inducible genes. Specifically, differentiation supports constitutive expression of STAT1 and IRF1
mRNAs but not expression of IRF2 and PIAS1. Our data are in good
agreement with studies that showed the importance of STAT1 in cytokine
induction and activation of interferon-responsive genes by IQ.
Imiquimod (IQ) is an immune response
modifier (30) that is capable of inducing several cytokines,
such as alpha interferon (IFN- In a clinical study, we found that every patient responded to IQ
therapy but that the degree of response varied (38). In a
previous study we demonstrated that the extent of the IFN response depends on the differentiation status of the untreated genital warts
(2) and correlates with pretreatment mRNA levels of various genes (3, 4, 38). Other studies of myeloid leukemias showed a correlation between the interferon response factor 1 (IRF1):IRF2 ratio and both the cytogenetic and molecular responses to IFN- Accordingly, our aim was to determine, through post hoc evaluation
after unblinding, whether clinical responses to IQ treatment correlate
with pretreatment mRNA levels of STATs, IRFs, and/or negative
regulators of the JAK/STAT pathway in genital wart biopsy specimens.
Selection of biopsy specimens.
In a randomized,
double-blind, vehicle-controlled study (38), patients were
given IQ in the form of a self-applicable cream (Aldara) three times
per week for a maximum of 16 weeks. All patients who received Aldara,
i.e., 16 of 20 patients who were enrolled in the study, responded to
the treatment; the remaining 4 patients received a placebo. However,
the extent of wart clearance was variable; based on the rate of
clearance, patients were evaluated in two groups: complete responders
(10 patients, with 99 to 100% wart reduction) and incomplete
responders (6 patients, with 75 to 92% wart reduction). Biopsy
specimens obtained prior to drug treatment (38) were used in
these experiments.
Cell cultures.
Primary normal human keratinocytes were
obtained from foreskin as described elsewhere (7). Cells
were kept in serum-free KGM medium (Clonetics, Palo Alto, Calif.). For
induction of keratinocyte differentiation, KGM medium was supplemented
with 2 mM calcium (8, 17).
Semiquantitation of mRNA levels.
Total RNA was isolated from
the biopsy specimens or cell monolayers by using Tri-Reagent (Molecular
Diagnostics, Cincinnati, Ohio) in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendation. mRNA levels of various genes were determined by a
semiquantiative reverse transcription (RT)-PCR (38). One
microgram of RNA was reverse transcribed (SuperScript II; GIBCO/BRL)
and subjected to PCR amplification. Primer pairs were custom designed
and synthesized (Genosys, The Woodlands, Tex.). The PCR run included
reagent controls as well as cloned cDNAs as positive controls. PCR
fragments were resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis, transferred to
a Hybond N+ nylon membrane (Amersham, Arlington Heights, Ill.), and
hybridized with end-labeled gene-specific oligonucleotide probes.
Autoradiograms were analyzed by densitometry (AlphaImager; Alpha
Innotech, San Leonardo, Calif.). Levels of various mRNAs were expressed
as ratios of the target gene mRNA levels to that of the mRNA for the
constitutively expressed glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G3PDH) gene.
Statistical analysis.
Data from the two groups were compared
by the t test and the Mann-Whitney rank sum test. Results
are presented as box plots.
Pretreatment mRNA levels of various STATs in wart biopsy
specimens.
RT-PCR studies determined the STAT1 and STAT3 mRNA
levels in specimens from pretreatment biopsies of genital warts. The
results of a representative experiment are shown in Fig.
1. This figure demonstrates the equal RNA
loads (equal amounts of constitutive G3PDH) but uneven levels of STAT1.
Densitometric analyses revealed that complete responders had
significantly higher levels of STAT1 mRNA and lower levels of STAT3
mRNA than did incomplete responders (Fig.
2A). STAT2 mRNA levels were very low and
were similar in the two groups (data not shown).
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Copyright © 2000, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
Correlation between Pretreatment Levels of
Interferon Response Genes and Clinical Responses to an Immune Response
Modifier (Imiquimod) in Genital Warts
ABSTRACT
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
INTRODUCTION
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Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-8, in
different cell types (12, 37). In keratinocytes an increase
in IL-6 and IL-8 mRNA levels has been observed after IQ treatment
(23). In the clinic, IQ has been successfully used for
treatment of genital warts (1, 5, 10). IQ induces several
cytokines, including IFN-, during the course of therapy
(38); this is believed to play an important role in this
drug's mechanism of action (33). Also, induction of IFN and
stimulation of IFN-responsive genes by IQ require active signal
transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) (6).
treatment (19). Recent studies revealed that the duration
and intensity of a cell's response to cytokines appear to be
determined by the net effect of several regulatory mechanisms, such as
negative regulators of the JAK/STAT pathway (35).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
RESULTS
Top
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
View larger version (33K):
[in a new window]
FIG. 1.
Representative RT-PCR results for STAT1 in various
biopsy specimens. mRNAs from biopsy specimens from complete responders
(A) and incomplete responders (B) were reverse transcribed and then PCR
amplified, using gene-specific primer pairs. PCR fragments were
resolved on a 1.5% agarose gel in Tris-borate-EDTA. Fragments were
transferred to a nylon membrane and then hybridized with gene-specific
probes prior to autoradiography. This figure shows results for STAT1 as
well as the constitutively expressed G3PDH. Quantitation is seen in
Fig. 2.
View larger version (23K):
[in a new window]
FIG. 2.
mRNA levels of STATs (A) and inhibitors of JAK/STAT
signaling (B) in wart biopsy specimens before IQ treatment. Biopsy
specimens from complete responders and from incomplete responders were
analyzed by a semiquantitative RT-PCR method. cDNAs were obtained from
the isolated RNAs by RT and subjected to PCR with gene-specific primer
pairs. PCR fragments were resolved on an agarose gel and transferred to
a nylon membrane. Hybridization with gene-specific probes and
subsequent autoradiography revealed the identities of fragments, and
quantitation was done by densitometry. Data are expressed as ratios of
target gene and G3PDH mRNA levels. Data were plotted as box plots and
analyzed for statistical differences. The box extends from the 5th to
the 95th percentile; the horizontal line indicates the median, and the
error bars show the range of the data. N.S., not significant.
Pretreatment mRNA levels of various inhibitors of the JAK/STAT pathway. mRNA levels of protein inhibitor of activated STAT1 (PIAS1) were significantly higher in the incomplete responder group than in the complete responders (Fig. 2B). PIAS3 was equally expressed in the two groups. Other inhibitors, such as SOCS1 and SOCS3, were not expressed in significant amounts in these biopsy specimens (data not shown).
Pretreatment levels of IRF1 and IRF2 mRNAs in wart biopsies.
IRF1 mRNA levels were significantly higher in the complete responder
group than in the incomplete responders, while IRF2 mRNA was expressed
in significantly larger amounts in biopsy specimens from incomplete
responders (Fig. 3A). Accordingly, the
IRF1:IRF2 ratio was significantly higher in complete responders than in incomplete responders.
|
Pretreatment levels of mRNAs of endogenous IFNs in wart biopsy
specimens.
IFN- and IFN-
mRNA levels were determined
similarly, as described above (Fig. 3B). Wart biopsy specimens from
complete responders contained significantly higher levels of IFN-
and IFN- mRNAs than did those of incomplete responders.
Status of differentiation of biopsy specimens before
treatment.
mRNAs for markers of cellular differentiation such as
involucrin and keratin 10, but not keratinocyte transglutaminase, were expressed at significantly higher levels in biopsy specimens from complete responders than in those of incomplete responders before treatment (Fig. 4).
|
Effects of differentiation on constitutive expression of
IFN-responsive genes as well as on IQ-induced expression of IFN-induced
genes in normal human keratinocytes in vitro.
mRNA levels of
STATs, IRFs, and PIASs were determined in cultures of normal human
keratinocytes (Fig. 5A) under
differentiation-inducing and non-differentiation-inducing conditions.
Differentiation was induced by adding calcium to the medium as
described in Materials and Methods. Interestingly, constitutive
expression of STAT1 and IRF1 was increased with differentiation. In
contrast, STAT3 and PIAS1 mRNA levels decreased while levels of IRF2
and PIAS3 mRNAs were unchanged or moderately changed, respectively,
upon differentiation.
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DISCUSSION |
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Top
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
References
|
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IQ induces IFN- and several other cytokines (12, 23,
37) that are believed to be part of its mechanism of action
(13, 33). IQ-induced IFN and cytokine expression as well as
activation of IFN-stimulated genes requires STAT1 (6); thus,
IQ may utilize the JAK/STAT pathway or STAT1 may be important for
IFN- induction (9, 34). Recent studies revealed that the
duration and intensity of a cell's response to cytokines appear to be
determined by the net effect of several regulatory mechanisms.
Therefore, the balance between positive and negative regulators of the
JAK/STAT pathway may influence the effectiveness of IQ therapies.
STAT proteins are effectors of cytokine and growth factor signaling (20, 21, 25). STATs are activated via tyrosine kinases (JAK kinases) and then transported to the nucleus, where they bind DNA response elements in promoters and regulate gene expression (34). STAT1 levels are significantly higher in complete responders to IQ than in incomplete responders (Fig. 2B). This is in agreement with the fact that STAT1 is essential for induction of various genes by IQ (6). In contrast, STAT3 levels were higher in incomplete responders (Fig. 2A). STAT3 is activated by growth factors, so it is possibly involved in mitogenic signaling (11). It is interesting that a STAT-binding sequence located in the c-myc P2 promoter (22) preferably binds STAT3 but not STAT1 and thus activates c-myc transcription. Also, the profile of activated STATs (i.e., the relative stoichiometry of various STAT family members) may be an important determinant of the biological outcome of signaling. Heterodimers of STAT1 and STAT3 differ in their sequence preferences and transcriptional induction properties (24). In addition, preexisting, latent STAT complexes are more likely targeted by cytokine stimulation than are newly associated complexes (32). Thus, the pretreatment levels of various STATs may determine the overall responses to IQ.
Preexisting levels of various cytokines induced a distinct
combinatorial assembly of STATs (39). Since the constitutive levels of IFN- and IFN- in the two groups of subjects are
significantly different (Fig. 3B), we assumed that they might determine
levels of STATs through constitutive activation. While keratinocytes express IFN- (27, 28), the source of IFN- may be
resident or infiltrating T cells (29). Wart biopsy specimens
responding to IFN therapy contain higher constitutive levels of markers
of T-cell infiltration than do specimens from incomplete responders (3, 4). Another possibility is that IQ responses are primed by combinations of IFN- and IFN- (M. Tomai, personal communication).
In addition, differentiation supports constitutive expression of STAT1 but not STAT3 (Fig. 5A) and complete responders exhibit a more highly differentiated phenotype (Fig. 4). Thus, distinct cytokine levels and/or differentiation status may determine the outcome of cytokine responses.
IRFs are a family of transcriptional regulators that exert distinct roles in biological processes such as pathogen responses, cytokine signaling, cell growth regulation, and hematopoietic development (31). Two well-studied members of this family, IRF1 and IRF2, have antagonistic roles in gene regulation: they bind to the same DNA elements, but IRF1 acts as a stimulator of transcription while IRF2 acts as a repressor (14). Apparently, alterations of the IRF1:IRF2 ratio can have significant consequences for cell growth (36); restrained cell growth depends on a balance between these two mutually antagonistic transcription factors (16). During immune responses, IRF1 activation is necessary for major histocompatibility complex upregulation (18, 36).
The IRF1:IRF2 ratio in biopsy specimens from complete responders is high (Fig. 3A). This is due to the fact that constitutive IRF1 levels are higher but IRF2 levels are lower in biopsy specimens from complete responders. These differences may reflect differences in the levels of STATs (Fig. 2A); STAT1 binds to and activates the IRF1 promoter (15). High IRF1:IRF2 ratios are also advantageous for good IFN responses in persons with myeloid leukemias (19). By analogy, we can assume that the higher IRF1:IRF2 ratio of complete responders is a predictor of better responses to IQ therapy.
Cytokines induce a variety of biological responses by binding to specific cell surface receptors and activating cytoplasmic signal transduction pathways, such as the JAK/STAT pathway. Recent studies have identified two new families of negative regulatory molecules, SOCS and PIAS, which function in novel ways to suppress signal transduction pathways (35).
Apparently, PIAS1, but not PIAS3, is expressed at higher levels in biopsy specimens of incomplete responders than in those of complete responders (Fig. 2B). PIAS1 blocks the DNA binding activity of STAT1 and inhibits STAT1-mediated gene activation in response to IFN (26). These results, together with the data on constitutive levels of STAT1 (Fig. 2A), are in agreement with the finding that STAT1 is essential for an optimum IFN response to IQ (6).
Although the data presented above offer an explanation for differences in clinical responses to IQ treatment, they do not explain the cause of those differences. One possible explanation is the state of cellular differentiation in the patients who exhibit better clearance: complete responders are more differentiated than the incomplete responders (Fig. 4). Our previous study of genital warts also emphasized the role of differentiation in IFN responses (2). Differentiation influences IQ responses in two ways. First, differentiation affects constitutive expression of STATs and IRFs (Fig. 5A): STAT1 and IRF1 are positively influenced by differentiation, while STAT3 and PIAS1 are negatively correlated with higher-level differentiation. The latter observation for PIAS1 may account for its higher-level expression in incomplete responders (Fig. 2B) who are otherwise less differentiated (Fig. 4). Second, differentiation potentiates IQ-mediated activation of IFN response genes (Fig. 5B).
In summary, we postulate that high constitutive levels of STAT1 and IRF1 but low levels of IRF2 and PIAS1 are essential for a complete response to IQ therapy. Constitutive mRNA levels of these genes are affected by cellular differentiation influencing IQ-induced gene expression. The cause of altered differentiation, however, remains to be determined.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-1070. Phone: (409) 772-8145. Fax: (409) 747-6869. E-mail: iarany{at}utmb.edu.
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Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, July 2000, p. 1869-1873, Vol. 44, No. 7
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Copyright © 2000, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
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