AAC
Home Help [Feedback] [For Subscribers] [Archive] [Search] [Contents]
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Restrepo, M. I.
Right arrow Articles by Jorgensen, J. H.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Restrepo, M. I.
Right arrow Articles by Jorgensen, J. H.

 Previous Article  |  Next Article 

Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, September 2003, p. 2974-2977, Vol. 47, No. 9
0066-4804/03/$08.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/AAC.47.9.2974-2977.2003
Copyright © 2003, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Activity of Daptomycin against Recent North American Isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae

M. I. Restrepo,1 J. A. Velez,1,{dagger} M. L. McElmeel,2 C. G. Whitney,3 and J. H. Jorgensen1,2*

Departments of Medicine,1 Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas 78229,2 Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 303333

Received 26 March 2003/ Returned for modification 24 May 2003/ Accepted 23 June 2003


   ABSTRACT
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 References
 
Daptomycin MICs at which 50% of isolates were inhibited (MIC50s) and MIC90s determined by the NCCLS broth microdilution method were both 0.25 µg/ml (range, 0.06 to 2 µg/ml) for 350 pneumococcal isolates. MICs determined by E test strips on commercially prepared Mueller-Hinton sheep blood agars with different calcium contents were 2 to 3 dilutions higher than those determined by strips that contained daptomycin plus calcium. Daptomycin zone diameters varied little on the same media.


   INTRODUCTION
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
References
 
The increasing resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae over the past decade to several different antibiotic classes has limited the therapeutic choices for treatment of severe, invasive pneumococcal infections (5, 8, 9, 25, 28, 29). Macrolide resistance has increased steadily in the United States (16, 29), with some resulting clinical failures (18; D. M. Musher, M. E. Dowell, V. D. Shortridge, R. K. Flamm, J. H. Jorgensen, P. Le Magueres, and K. L. Krause, Letter, N. Engl. J. Med. 346:630-631, 2002). The emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance in some areas has raised concern for treatment of serious infections in the future (6, 14, 15) and has also resulted in therapeutic failures (7, 15). In particular, fluoroquinolones have been recommended as agents with predictable activity against otherwise-drug-resistant pneumococci, especially for patients with underlying risk factors for severe infections (4, 13). The use of vancomycin to treat pneumococcal infections other than meningitis has not been encouraged, in part due to concerns about increasing vancomycin resistance in other organisms (13). Thus, newer agents that can provide predictable activity against multidrug-resistant pneumococcal strains in severely ill patients are needed.

Daptomycin is a semisynthetic lipopeptide antibiotic that appears to possess a unique mechanism of action: it disrupts the cell membranes of gram-positive bacteria by causing the loss of membrane potential (1). Because of very good reported activity against a variety of gram-positive bacteria both recently (3, 11, 23, 26) and when undergoing initial development (2, 17, 24), daptomycin is currently under development for several clinical indications and is administered once daily by the intravenous route (27). The optimal activity of daptomycin requires physiological levels of calcium ions (~50 µg/ml), including levels in culture media used to perform susceptibility tests (3, 10, 12). This in vitro study assessed the activity of daptomycin against 350 recent North American surveillance isolates of S. pneumoniae, including selected highly resistant strains. In addition, selected isolates were examined by the E test gradient diffusion method and the NCCLS disk diffusion procedure for determination of daptomycin susceptibilities.

The 350 pneumococcal isolates examined in this study included 200 with resistance mechanisms affecting macrolides, lincosamides, streptogramins, fluoroquinolones, and beta-lactams. An additional 150 fully susceptible isolates were selected randomly from among more than 9,000 invasive pneumococcal isolates recovered and characterized during the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Active Bacterial Core Surveillance, part of the Emerging Infections Program, conducted from 1998 through 2000. The isolates were recovered from patients in seven different surveillance sites, which represented a total survey population of greater than 17 million people. These strains had been tested earlier against a battery of 15 antimicrobial agents representing all clinically relevant drug classes. The statistical power of the sample allowed detection of a resistance rate of approximately 0.2% (95% confidence interval, 0 to 1% resistance).

In addition to being tested with daptomycin, each isolate was tested with linezolid, quinupristin-dalfopristin, penicillin, cefotaxime, erythromycin, clindamycin, and levofloxacin. Daptomycin reagent grade powder was kindly provided by Cubist Pharmaceuticals. Diagnostic grade powders of the other agents were either obtained from their manufacturers or purchased from Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo. The test medium for the NCCLS broth microdilution procedure (20) was cation-adjusted Mueller-Hinton broth (Difco formulation; Becton Dickinson [BD], Cockeysville, Md.) supplemented with 3% lysed horse blood and, in addition, supplemented to contain a final calcium concentration of 44 µg/ml. Inocula of the test organisms were prepared from colonies grown on sheep blood agar plates incubated for 20 to 24 h in 5% CO2. Colonies were suspended in 0.9% saline to obtain a suspension equivalent to the turbidity of a 0.5 McFarland standard and further diluted 1:10 in 0.9% saline within 15 min. This provided a final inoculum density of approximately 5 x 105 CFU/ml in the wells of the microdilution panels following inoculation. Colony counts of positive control wells were performed periodically to verify the desired inoculum concentrations. The microdilution panels were incubated at 35°C in ambient air for 20 to 24 h prior to visual determination of MICs.

MICs for a subset of 50 selected strains were determined with specially prepared daptomycin E strips (prepared by AB Biodisk, Solna, Sweden, and provided by Cubist), one lot of which contained added calcium as well as the daptomycin to establish a calcium and daptomycin concentration gradient in the agar. The daptomycin concentration range for both E test formulations was 0.016 to 256 µg/ml. E test strips were applied to the surfaces of 150-mm-diameter Mueller-Hinton sheep blood agar plates (purchased from BD or Remel, Lenexa, Kans.). E strips containing vancomycin as a control drug were included on each plate. Plates were inoculated with a 0.5 McFarland density organism suspension prepared in 0.9% saline as described above. Plates were incubated at 35°C in 5% CO2 for 20 to 24 h prior to determination of MICs. The MIC was defined by the intersection of the growth ellipse margin with the E test strip when reflected light at an oblique angle was used to examine the plates. Because the E test strips are marked in 1/2 log2 concentration values, it was possible to record MICs in smaller than the usual twofold increments. In such instances in this study, E test MICs were rounded to the next higher log2 MICs for purposes of comparison with the reference broth microdilution MICs.

Disk diffusion tests with 30-µg daptomycin disks (prepared by BD and provided by Cubist) were performed on the same 50 selected isolates according to the methods recommended by the NCCLS (21) with the same 150-mm Mueller-Hinton sheep blood agar plates (BD and Remel). Chemical assays of the calcium levels of the Mueller-Hinton agar lots used in the study were kindly provided by Cubist. Disk tests with vancomycin as the control drug were performed on each isolate. Plates were inoculated with an organism suspension equivalent to a 0.5 McFarland standard prepared in 0.9% saline as described above. Plates were incubated at 35°C in 5% CO2 for 20 to 24 h prior to measurement of zone diameters.

S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619 was tested initially and with each day's MIC and disk diffusion tests for quality control purposes. MICs and zone diameter values for the control drug, vancomycin, were always within the NCCLS-specified range (22) throughout the study.

The daptomycin MIC at which 50% of the isolates were inhibited (MIC50) and MIC90 were both 0.25 µg/ml for the overall strain collection based on MICs determined by the NCCLS broth microdilution test method and calcium-supplemented lysed horse blood broth (Table 1). Linezolid was active against all strains tested, although three isolates were resistant to quinupristin-dalfopristin and 32 isolates were resistant to levofloxacin (Table 1). The daptomycin MICs for the resistant strain collection were slightly higher than those for the fully susceptible strains for unclear reasons.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 1. Susceptibility of the S. pneumoniae isolate collection to daptomycin and the comparative agents by the NCCLS broth microdilution method with calcium-supplemented Mueller-Hinton lysed horse blood broth as the test medium

 
The calcium content of the test media included in this study varied widely. Although the target value of calcium for the reference broth microdilution method was 50 µg/ml, the final medium contained a measured concentration of 44 µg/ml. One of the agar lots had the desired content of 50 µg/ml, although three lots from a different manufacturer contained only 11 to 14 µg/ml (Tables 2 and 3). The differing calcium contents of the Mueller-Hinton sheep blood agars examined in this study had a significant effect on the daptomycin MICs by the E test method (Table 2). The daptomycin E strips without calcium provided the best correlation with MICs determined by the NCCLS broth microdilution method when applied to the BD Mueller-Hinton agar (calcium content, 50 µg/ml), i.e., 90.9% essential agreement of MICs. E strips that contained calcium plus daptomycin yielded MICs fourfold or more lower when used with BD Mueller-Hinton agar, which resulted in an essential agreement of only 63.1% with the reference broth microdilution MICs. Conversely, the daptomycin E strips that included calcium provided the best correlation with MICs determined by the NCCLS broth microdilution method when applied to the Remel Mueller-Hinton agar that was largely deficient in calcium (11 to 14 µg/ml), i.e., 96% essential agreement of MICs. Daptomycin MICs with the non-calcium-supplemented E strips provided much higher MICs when the Remel Mueller-Hinton agar was used, resulting in 0% essential agreement. Of note, the daptomycin MICs generated by the broth microdilution reference method and both E test formulations and all Mueller-Hinton agar lots were always within the 4-dilution approved NCCLS range (0.06 to 0.5 µg/ml) with S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619 (22).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 2. Comparison of daptomycin E test MICs and NCCLS broth microdilution MICs according to the Mueller-Hinton agar test medium and E test formulation

 

View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 3. Comparison of daptomycin zone diameters according to the Mueller-Hinton agar brand and its calcium content

 
The calcium content also affected daptomycin zone diameters when determined by the NCCLS disk diffusion test, but to only a modest degree (~2 mm). Since zone size interpretive criteria for daptomycin have not yet been established, it is not possible to determine if the smaller zones developed on the Mueller-Hinton agar that contained suboptimal amounts of calcium would result in interpretive errors. Nevertheless, daptomycin disk zones seemed less affected by the calcium content of the media than MICs generated by E tests on the same medium lots. Routine quality control testing of S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619 did not reveal any deficiencies in the performance of the Mueller-Hinton sheep blood agar lots.

While earlier studies that examined the activity of daptomycin against pneumococci focused only on penicillin-susceptible and nonsusceptible strains (2, 3, 23, 24, 26), we assessed its activity against strains with resistance to several other drug classes (i.e., macrolides, lincosamides, fluoroquinolones, and quinupristin-dalfopristin), Based on our findings and those of others (2, 3, 10, 11, 17, 23, 24, 26) it appears that daptomycin should be considered, along with vancomycin and linezolid, an agent with predictable activity against contemporary pneumococci.

The calcium content of susceptibility test media has been shown previously to affect daptomycin susceptibility results (3, 10, 26) due to the calcium-dependent nature of the drug's binding to its molecular target (19). The Mueller-Hinton sheep blood agars examined in this study had a significant effect on the daptomycin MICs determined by the E test method. Thus, a laboratory would need to carefully match the E test formulation to the calcium content of their test media. Alternatively, commercial medium manufacturers could strive to provide media with approximately the target concentration of calcium so that the standard daptomycin E test strips could be used with confidence. For unclear reasons, the calcium content of the agars did not seem to result in a large variance in zone diameters by the standard NCCLS disk test. Unfortunately, routine quality control testing with the NCCLS-designated strain S. pneumoniae ATCC 49619 did not reveal any deficiencies in the various Mueller-Hinton agar lots. Diagnostic product manufacturers should strive to achieve standardization of test reagents and media so that this promising new drug can be tested reliably by clinical microbiology laboratories if clinical studies lead to the eventual approval of daptomycin for clinical use.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
This study was supported in part by a grant from Cubist Pharmaceuticals, Lexington, Mass.


   FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San Antonio, TX 78229. Phone: (210) 567-4088. Fax: (210) 567-2367. E-mail: jorgensen{at}uthscsa.edu. Back

{dagger} Present address: Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Medellin, Colombia. Back


   REFERENCES
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 References
 

  1. Alborn, W. E., Jr., N. E. Allen, and D. A. Preston. 1991. Daptomycin disrupts membrane potential in growing Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35:2282-2287.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  2. Appelbaum, P. C., S. K. Spangler, E. Crotty, and M. R. Jacobs. 1989. Susceptibility of penicillin-sensitive and -resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae to new antimicrobial agents, including daptomycin, teicoplanin, cefpodoxime and quinolones. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 23:509-516.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Barry, A. L., P. C. Fuchs, and S. D. Brown. 2001. In vitro activities of daptomycin against 2,789 clinical isolates from 11 North American medical centers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:1919-1922.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Bartlett, J. G., S. F. Dowell, L. A. Mandell, T. M. File, Jr., D. M. Musher, and M. J. Fine. 2000. Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31:347-382.[CrossRef][Medline]
  5. Butler, J. C., J. Hofmann, M. S. Cetron, J. A. Elliott, R. F. Facklam, and R. F. Breiman. 1996. The continued emergence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: an update from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's pneumococcal surveillance system. J. Infect. Dis. 174:986-993.[Medline]
  6. Chen, D. K., A. McGeer, J. C. de Azavedo, and D. E. Low. 1999. Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. N. Engl. J. Med. 341:233-239.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Davidson, R., R. Cavalcanti, J. L. Brunton, D. J. Bast, J. C. S. de Azavedo, P. Kibsey, C. Fleming, and D. E. Low. 2002. Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 346:747-750.[Free Full Text]
  8. Doern, G. V., A. B. Brueggemann, H. Huynh, E. Wingert, and P. Rhomberg. 1999. Antimicrobial resistance with Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1997-98. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5:757-765.[Medline]
  9. Feikin, D. R., A. Schuchat, M. Kolczak, N. L. Barrett, L. H. Harrison, L. Lefkowitz, A. McGeer, M. M. Farley, D. J. Vugia, C. Lexau, K. R. Stefonek, J. E. Patterson, and J. H. Jorgensen. 2000. Mortality from invasive pneumococcal pneumonia in the era of antibiotic resistance, 1995-1997. Am. J. Public Health 90:223-229.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  10. Fuchs, P. C., A. L. Barry, and S. D. Brown. 2001. Evaluation of daptomycin susceptibility testing by E test and the effect of different batches of media. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 48:557-561.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Goldstein, E. J. C., D. M. Citron, C. V. Merriam, Y. A. Warren, K. L. Tyrrell, and H. T. Fernandez. 2003. In vitro activities of daptomycin, vancomycin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, linezolid, and five other antimicrobials against 307 gram-positive anaerobic and 31 Corynebacterium clinical isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47:337-341.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  12. Hanberger, H., L. E. Nilsson, R. Maller, and B. Isaksson. 1991. Pharmacodynamics of daptomycin and vancomycin on Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus demonstrated by studies of initial killing and postantibiotic effect and influence of Ca2+ and albumin on these drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35:1710-1716.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Heffelfinger, J. D., S. F. Dowell, J. H. Jorgensen, K. P. Klugman, L. R. Mabry, D. M. Musher, J. E. Plouffe, A. Rakowsky, A. Schuchat, and C. G. Whitney. 2000. Management of community-acquired pneumonia in the era of pneumococcal resistance: a report from the Drug-Resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Therapeutic Working Group. Arch. Intern. Med. 160:1399-1408.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. Ho, P. L., T. L. Que, D. N. Tsang, T. K. Ng, K. H. Chow, and W. H. Seto. 1999. Emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance among multiply resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Hong Kong. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1310-1313.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. Ho, P. L., W. S. Tse, K. W. Tsang, T. K. Kwok, T. K. Ng, V. C. C. Cheng, and R. M. T. Chan. 2001. Risk factors for acquisition of levofloxacin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: a case-control study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32:701-707.[CrossRef][Medline]
  16. Hyde, T. B., K. Gay, D. S. Stephens, D. J. Vugia, M. Pass, S. Johnson, N. L. Barrett, W. Schaffner, P. R. Cieslak, P. S. Maupin, E. R. Zell, J. H. Jorgensen, R. R. Facklam, and C. G. Whitney. 2001. Macrolide resistance among invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. JAMA 286:1857-1862.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  17. Jorgensen, J. H., L. A. Maher, and J. S. Redding. 1987. In vitro activity of LY146032 (daptomycin) against selected aerobic bacteria. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 6:91-96.[CrossRef][Medline]
  18. Kelley, M. A., D. M. Weber, P. Gilligan, and M. S. Cohen. 2000. Breakthrough pneumococcal bacteremia in patients being treated with azithromycin and clarithromycin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 31:1008-1011.[CrossRef][Medline]
  19. Lakey, J. H., and M. Ptak. 1988. Fluorescence indicates a calcium-dependent interaction between the lipopeptide antibiotic LY 146032 and phospholipid membranes. Biochemistry 27:4639-4645.[CrossRef][Medline]
  20. NCCLS. 2003. Methods for dilution antimicrobial susceptibility tests for bacteria that grow aerobically. Approved standard M7-A6. NCCLS, Wayne, Pa.
  21. NCCLS. 2003. Performance standards for antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests. Approved standard M2-A8. NCCLS, Wayne, Pa.
  22. NCCLS. 2003. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Supplement M100-S13. NCCLS, Wayne, Pa.
  23. Petersen, P. J., P. A. Bradford, W. J. Weiss, T. M. Murphy, P. E. Sum, and S. J. Projan. 2002. In vitro and in vivo activities of tigecycline (GAR-936), daptomycin, and comparative antimicrobial agents against glycopeptide-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus and other resistant gram-positive pathogens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46:2595-2601.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Rodriguez-Tudela, J. L., F. Lopez de Felipe, J. V. Martinez-Suarez, and A. Fenoll. 1992. Comparative in-vitro activity of four peptide antibiotics against penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 29:299-302.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  25. Sahm, D. F., J. A. Karlowsky, L. J. Kelly, I. A. Critchley, M. E. Jones, C. Thornsberry, Y. Mauriz, and J. Kahn. 2001. Need for annual surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: 2-year longitudinal analysis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45:1037-1042.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Snydman, D. R., N. V. Jacobus, L. A. McDermott, J. R. Lonks, and J. M. Boyce. 2000. Comparative in vitro activities of daptomycin and vancomycin against resistant gram-positive pathogens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:3447-3450.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  27. Tally, F. P., and M. F. DeBruin. 2000. Development of daptomycin for gram-positive infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 46:523-526.[Free Full Text]
  28. Thornsberry, C., P. T. Ogilvie, H. P. Holley, Jr., and D. F. Sahm. 1999. Survey of susceptibilities of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis isolates to 26 antimicrobial agents: a prospective U.S. study. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:2612-2623.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  29. Whitney, C. G., M. M. Farley, J. Hadler, L. H. Harrison, C. Lexau, A. Reingold, L. Lefkowitz, P. R. Cieslak, M. Cetron, E. R. Zell, J. H. Jorgensen, and A. Schuchat. 2001. Increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 343:1917-1924.

Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, September 2003, p. 2974-2977, Vol. 47, No. 9
0066-4804/03/$08.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/AAC.47.9.2974-2977.2003
Copyright © 2003, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.




This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Restrepo, M. I.
Right arrow Articles by Jorgensen, J. H.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Restrepo, M. I.
Right arrow Articles by Jorgensen, J. H.

Home Help [Feedback] [For Subscribers] [Archive] [Search] [Contents]
Clin. Vaccine Immunol. Clin. Microbiol. Rev.
J. Clin. Microbiol. ALL ASM JOURNALS