This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Falk, R.
Right arrow Articles by Polacheck, I.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Falk, R.
Right arrow Articles by Polacheck, I.

 Previous Article  |  Next Article 

Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, September 2004, p. 3606-3609, Vol. 48, No. 9
0066-4804/04/$08.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/AAC.48.9.3606-3609.2004
Copyright © 2004, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Distribution of Amphotericin B-Arabinogalactan Conjugate in Mouse Tissue and Its Therapeutic Efficacy against Murine Aspergillosis

Rama Falk,1 Jacob Grunwald,2 Amnon Hoffman,3 Abraham J. Domb,2 and Itzhack Polacheck1*

Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical Center,1 Departments of Medicinal Chemistry,2 Pharmaceutics, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem-School of Pharmacy, Jerusalem, Israel3

Received 15 April 2004/ Returned for modification 18 April 2004/ Accepted 29 April 2004


arrow
ABSTRACT
 
The pharmacokinetic characteristics and tissue distribution of a novel water-soluble, nontoxic amphotericin B-arabinogalactan (AMB-AG) conjugate exhibited distinct differences from those of micellar and liposomal amphotericin B formulations. These differences included extended persistence of drug in the body and its accumulation in the lungs; thus, the AMB-AG conjugate was highly effective in treating systemic murine aspergillosis.


arrow
TEXT
 
For many years, the classic amphotericin B-deoxycholate (AMB-DOC; Fungizone) conjugate has been considered to be the mainstay of antifungal therapy; however, AMB treatment is frequently associated with numerous toxicities that limit its use, including infusion-related adverse effects and, particularly, nephrotoxicity (3, 13, 15). Because these toxicities are partially ameliorated when a lipid carrier is used, three lipid formulations have recently been developed and licensed. One of these, liposomal AMB (L-AMB; AmBisome), is the most widely used; however, it is still associated with some toxicity and is not universally effective. Thus, alternative formulations are always desirable (1, 2, 7, 11).

One of the approaches for improving drug performance and reducing toxicity is conjugation to a polymeric carrier (5, 12). Our previous studies demonstrated that conjugation of AMB with oxidized arabinogalactan (AG) generated a highly water-soluble AMB-AG conjugate (8, 9) that was much safer and more therapeutically effective than AMB-DOC in different fungal and leishmanial mouse models (9, 10). The physicochemical characteristics of the AMB-AG conjugate differ from those of AMB in the micellar and lipid formulations (8, 9). We therefore studied the pharmacokinetics, distribution in tissue, and therapeutic efficacy of AMB-AG compared to those of L-AMB and AMB-DOC in mice.

Preparation of AMB formulations. AMB was conjugated by a Schiff base reaction with oxidized AG via the formation of an imine bond between the AMB primary amine and the AG aldehyde group. The result was the production of an AMB-AG conjugate that was further reduced to generate the amine form, as previously described (8, 9). All of the AMB formulations were prepared for injection as previously described (9).

The three formulations of AMB (AMB-DOC, L-AMB, and AMB-AG) were administered intravenously (i.v.) by single injections of 0.2 ml for 5 consecutive days to groups of 10 healthy male albino BALB/c mice (weight, 20 to 25 g). On the seventh day, the mice were sacrificed, and the internal organs were removed and analyzed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) for AMB content. Similarly, in order to assess the pharmacokinetics, the AMB concentrations in organs and plasma samples at different time points up to 24 h after drug administration were determined. The tissues were homogenized in methanol and incubated for 1 h at room temperature; the supernatant was assayed for AMB by HPLC (for experimental details, see Fig. 1 and 2).



View larger version (19K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 1. Profile of AMB concentrations in plasma (means ± standard deviations) following single i.v. administration of each of the AMB formulations to mice (10 per group). Blood was collected at the time points indicated, the plasma was separated immediately, and the AMB was extracted with methanol and analyzed by HPLC.



View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 2. AMB concentrations (means ± standard deviations) in organs of mice (10 mice per group) after i.v. administration of various AMB formulations. The experiment was repeated three times. Organs were excised 2 h after a single drug administration (A) and on the seventh day after five daily consecutive injections of the AMB formulations (B).

HPLC analysis. A sample of 40 µl was injected into a reverse-phase column (RP-8, 5 mm, 250 by 5 mm) with mobile phase (0.01 M ammonium acetate, pH 8, plus acetonitrile) at a rate of 1 ml min–1 and detection of AMB at 405 nm; the limit of detection was 0.1 µg/ml.

Systemic murine aspergillosis. The murine aspergillosis model was modified slightly from that described by Denning et al. (4); the mice (male albino BALB/c mice weighing 20 to 25 g) were immunosuppressed 2 days prior to the inoculation with 5 x 106 conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus (ATCC 64026) and treated daily with one of the AMB formulations (see protocol in Fig. 2).

Pharmacokinetics and distribution in tissue. The differences between the physicochemical properties of AMB and its conjugated form, AMB-AG, caused significant alterations in the time profile of the concentrations of the drug in both plasma and tissues following administration of either the AMB-AG conjugate or AMB in the micellar and liposomal formulations (Table 1; Fig. 1 and 2). Steady-state concentration of AMB in plasma (3 µg/ml) was attained 20 min after administration of AMB-AG and was maintained for up to 24 h (Fig. 1). The key pharmacokinetic parameters of AMB following administration in different formulations are summarized in Table 1. The modes of administration of AMB exerted a profound effect on both the distribution and elimination processes. The liposomal formulation significantly restricted the distribution of the drug in comparison to administration as a micellar dispersion, as evidenced by the volume of distribution at steady state (Vss) (68 versus 998 ml/kg of body weight, respectively). The reduced lipophilicity of the AMB-AG conjugate yielded an even larger Vss (1,438 ml/kg). The rate of elimination (indicated by the rate-of-elimination constant and the elimination half-life) was highest for AMB-DOC and lowest for the AMB-AG conjugate. These differences in distribution and elimination were associated with significant differences in drug concentration in plasma, as evidenced by the area under the concentration in blood-time curve. The values for mean residence time indicate that the liposomal formulation extended the duration of the drug in the body twofold compared to the micellar formulation and that the conjugate improved this parameter fivefold, a common increase for polymeric drugs (6). The concentrations of AMB in the urine were extremely low with all the formulations (data not shown).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 1. Pharmacokinetic parametersa

Investigation of the tissue distribution of AMB (Fig. 2) revealed that the highest concentrations of AMB after administration of the conjugate occurred in the lung, followed by the liver, spleen, and kidney, and this accumulation increased proportionally to the dose. Following administration of a single dose of one of the three AMB formulations, the drug accumulated mostly in the lungs after administration of the conjugate form (2 and 6 µg of drug/g of tissue for the low and high doses, respectively) (Fig. 2A), in the liver after administration of the liposomal formulation (6 and 24 µg of drug/g of tissue for the low and high doses, respectively) (Fig. 2A), and in the spleen after administration of the micellar formulation (1.7 µg of drug/g of tissue) (Fig. 2A).

The AMB levels in tissues increased significantly after the five-treatment regimen (Fig. 2B). The increase in concentration in the lungs was higher with the conjugate than that obtained with L-AMB and AMB-DOC; the concentration increased from 2 and 6 µg/g of tissue after single injections of low and high doses, respectively, to 18 and 26 µg/g after five injections (Fig. 2A and B). The accumulation of AMB from the conjugate was also observed in the kidney after five doses (8 and 18 µg/g of tissue for the low and high doses, respectively) (Fig. 2B); however, these concentrations were proven previously to be nontoxic (9). The AMB concentrations from the AMB-AG conjugate in the spleen and liver were significantly lower than those obtained with both low and high doses of L-AMB (Fig. 2A and B), and the concentrations of AMB in the spleen obtained with low doses of AMB-AG and AMB-DOC were similar. Interestingly, AMB from AMB-DOC accumulated to the largest extent in the liver. Only low concentrations of AMB were detected in the brains of mice treated with any of the formulations (<1.2 µg/g).

The AMB concentrations in the lung (2 to 26 µg/g) obtained with AMB-AG exceeded both the MICs and the minimal fungicidal concentrations against A. fumigatus (0.25 and 2 µg/ml, respectively) measured by us in vitro according to the NCCLS M38-A standard methods (14). Such information could potentially be of benefit for treatment of invasive fungal infections caused by airborne conidia, such as aspergillosis.

Therapeutic efficacy. The parameter of therapeutic efficacy was based upon two criteria: survival of treated infected mice and eradication of the fungus from target organs. The high dose of the AMB-AG conjugate, similar to the high dose of L-AMB, was effective in prolonging the survival of infected mice (Fig. 3) and eradicating the fungus from the kidney and liver (Table 2) and may be more effective than high-dose L-AMB in eradicating Aspergillus from the lungs (90% versus 60% eradication compared to control) (Table 2). These results are in accordance with the high AMB concentrations found in the lungs of uninfected mice (Fig. 2A and B).



View larger version (28K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIG. 3. Therapeutic efficacy of different AMB formulations in murine systemic aspergillosis. Ten mice were included in each group; the experiment was repeated three times. The experimental protocol is outlined in the bottom part of the figure. The high doses of the AMB-AG conjugate, and L-AMB, were significantly more therapeutically effective (P < 0.005 by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit procedure) than low-dosage and control treatments. d, day.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 2. Eradication of Aspergillus from mouse organs after treatment with AMB formulations

In conclusion, the characteristics that distinguish the AMB-AG conjugate from the other formulations—its pharmacokinetic properties, its accumulation in the lung, and its degree of efficacy in treatment of murine aspergillosis—indicate its potential to become an important medication for the treatment of invasive fungal infections.


arrow
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
This work was supported in part by a grant from the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education of Israel.

We thank Ahmad Nazer and Tirtsa Ehrenfreund for their guidance in this project and gratefully acknowledge JoAnne Johnson of the NIEHS for critically reviewing the manuscript. A.J.D. and A.H. are affiliated with the David R. Bloom Center for Pharmacy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.


arrow
FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical Center, P.O. Box 12000, Jerusalem 91120, Israel. Phone: 972-2-6776592. Fax: 972-2-6419545. E-mail: Itzhack.Polacheck{at}huji.ac.il. Back


arrow
REFERENCES
 
    1
  1. Adler-Moore, J., and R. T. Proffitt. 2002. AmBisome: liposomal formulation, structure, mechanism of action and pre-clinical experience. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 49(Suppl. 1):21-30.[Abstract]
    2. 2
  2. Adler-Moore, J. P., and R. T. Proffitt. 1993. Development, characterization, efficacy and mode of action of AmBisome, a unilamellar liposomal formulation of AmB. J. Liposome Res. 3:429-450.
    3. 3
  3. Butler, W. T. 1966. Pharmacology, toxicity, and therapeutic usefulness of amphotericin B. JAMA 195:371-375.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    4. 4
  4. Denning, D. W., L. Hall, M. Jackson, and S. Hollis. 1995. Efficacy of D0870 compared with those of itraconazole and amphotericin B in two murine models of invasive aspergillosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39:1809-1814.[Abstract]
    5. 5
  5. Domb, A. J., G. Linden, I. Polacheck, and S. Benita. 1996. Nystatin-dextran conjugates: synthesis and characterization. J. Polym. Sci. Part A Polym. Chem. 34:1229-1236.
    6. 6
  6. Duncan, R., S. Gac-Breton, R. Keane, R. Musila, Y. N. Sat, R. Satchi, and F. Searle. 2001. Polymer-drug conjugates, PDEPT and PELT: basic principles for design and transfer from the laboratory to clinic. J. Control. Release 74:135-146.[CrossRef][Medline]
    7. 7
  7. Dupont, B. 2002. Overview of the lipid formulations of amphotericin B. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 49(Suppl. 1):31-36.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    8. 8
  8. Ehrenfreund-Kleinman, T., T. Azzam, R. Falk, I. Polacheck, J. Golenser, and A. J. Domb. 2002. Synthesis and characterization of novel water-soluble amphotericin B-arabinogalactan conjugates. Biomaterials 23:1327-1335.[CrossRef][Medline]
    9. 9
  9. Falk, R., A. J. Domb, and I. Polacheck. 1999. A novel injectable water-soluble amphotericin B-arabinogalactan conjugate. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:1975-1981.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    10. 10
  10. Golenser, J., S. Frankenburg, T. Ehrenfreund, and A. J. Domb. 1999. Efficacious treatment of experimental leishmaniasis with amphotericin B-arabinogalactan water-soluble derivatives. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 43:2209-2214.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    11. 11
  11. Hiemenz, J. W., and T. J. Walsh. 1996. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B: recent progress and future directions. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22(Suppl. 2):133-144.[Medline]
    12. 12
  12. Maeda, M., C. Nishimura, D. Umeno, and M. Takagi. 1994. Psoralen-containing vinyl monomer for conjugation of double-helical DNA with vinyl polymers. Bioconjug. Chem. 5:527-531.[CrossRef][Medline]
    13. 13
  13. Meyer, R. D. 1992. Current role of therapy with amphotericin B. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14(Suppl. 1):154-160.
    14. 14
  14. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. 2002. Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility testing of filamentous fungi. Approved standard M38-A, 2nd ed., vol. 22. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, Wayne, Pa.
    15. 15
  15. Wingard, J. R., P. Kubilis, L. Lee, G. Yee, M. White, L. Walshe, R. Bowden, E. Anaissie, J. Hiemenz, and J. Lister. 1999. Clinical significance of nephrotoxicity in patients treated with amphotericin B for suspected or proven aspergillosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 29:1402-1407.[CrossRef][Medline]

Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, September 2004, p. 3606-3609, Vol. 48, No. 9
0066-4804/04/$08.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/AAC.48.9.3606-3609.2004
Copyright © 2004, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



This article has been cited by other articles:

  • Gershkovich, P., Wasan, E. K., Lin, M., Sivak, O., Leon, C. G., Clement, J. G., Wasan, K. M. (2009). Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of amphotericin B in rats following oral administration in a novel lipid-based formulation. J Antimicrob Chemother 64: 101-108 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Seifert, K., Croft, S. L. (2006). In Vitro and In Vivo Interactions between Miltefosine and Other Antileishmanial Drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 73-79 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Falk, R., Hacham, M., Nyska, A., Foley, J. F., Domb, A. J., Polacheck, I. (2005). Induction of interleukin-1{beta}, tumour necrosis factor-{alpha} and apoptosis in mouse organs by amphotericin B is neutralized by conjugation with arabinogalactan. J Antimicrob Chemother 55: 713-720 [Abstract] [Full Text]  

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Falk, R.
Right arrow Articles by Polacheck, I.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Falk, R.
Right arrow Articles by Polacheck, I.

Copyright © 2009 by the American Society for Microbiology.   For an alternate route to Journals.ASM.org, visit: http://intl-journals.asm.org | More Info»