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Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, August 2005, p. 3341-3346, Vol. 49, No. 8
0066-4804/05/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/AAC.49.8.3341-3346.2005
Copyright © 2005, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Relationship between In Vitro Activities of Amphotericin B and Flucytosine and pH for Clinical Yeast and Mold Isolates

D. T. A. te Dorsthorst,1,2,3 P. E. Verweij,2,3 J. F. G. M. Meis,1 and J. W. Mouton1*

Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital,1 Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center,2 Nijmegen University Center for Infectious Diseases, Nijmegen, The Netherlands3

Received 7 January 2005/ Returned for modification 28 March 2005/ Accepted 15 May 2005


   ABSTRACT
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
In this study, we investigated the pH dependency of the in vitro activities of amphotericin B (AMB) and flucytosine (5FC) against Candida spp., Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Rhizopus spp., and Scedosporium prolificans in RPMI 1640 buffered with citrate buffer (pH 4.0, 5.0, 5.4, and 6.0), citrate-phosphate buffer (pH 5.4, 6.0, 6.4, and 7.0), and 3-[N-morpholino]propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) (pH 6.4, 7.0, 7.4, and 7.9). For 5FC, no significant differences were found between MICs obtained with the different buffers, while for AMB, significant differences were found. The MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer were approximately 1 twofold-dilution step higher than the MICs obtained with MOPS. We demonstrated that the in vitro activities of AMB and 5FC against yeast and mold isolates were pH dependent. The in vitro activity of AMB decreased when the pH was lowered, while the in vitro activity of 5FC increased. The effect of the pH on the in vitro activities was dependent not only on the antifungal agent tested but also on the microorganism. For AMB, there was a nonlinear relationship (median r2, 0.864) for Candida spp., C. neoformans, A. fumigatus, and Rhizopus spp. over the pH range tested. The mean MICs ranged from 0.5 to 2.52 µg/ml at pH 7.0 and from 20.16 to 32 µg/ml at pH 5.0. For S. prolificans, there was no relationship. For 5FC, there was a linear relationship for Candida spp. (median r2, 0.767) and a nonlinear relationship for C. neoformans and A. fumigatus (median r2, 0.882) over the pH range tested. The mean MIC values ranged from 0.125 to 1,024 µg/ml at pH 7.0 and from 0.02 to 4 µg/ml at pH 5.0. For Rhizopus spp. and S. prolificans, the relationship could not be determined, since the MIC was >1,024 µg/ml over a pH range of 4.0 to 7.9.


   INTRODUCTION
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
In vitro susceptibility testing can be used to help predict outcomes in the treatment of invasive fungal infections. A good standard in vitro susceptibility test has to provide reproducible results, detect the resistance of fungi, and correlate with clinical outcome (10). There are many factors involved, which have made it difficult to develop and standardize in vitro susceptibility tests for fungi. Some of these factors are inherent to the antifungal agents, and others are related to the test conditions. Taking into account all these factors, the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI; formerly the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards) has published standard methods for the in vitro antifungal susceptibility testing of yeast (M27-A2) and of filamentous fungi (M38-A) (7, 8).

Although the standardized CLSI method has been found to give better inter- and intracenter reproducibility, in vitro antifungal susceptibility testing is still faced with several problems, such as the poor correlation of in vitro results with clinical outcomes for some organism-drug combinations. The poor correlation may be partly due to various factors related to the host, drugs, fungus, and their interactions (16), such as the recovery of granulocytes, which play roles in clinical outcome but are not taken into account in the in vitro susceptibility tests. It may also be partly due to various variables, such as pH, which may influence the activity of antifungal agents and which deviate significantly from the clinical situation for in vitro susceptibility tests (5).

Viviani et al. demonstrated that the MICs of flucytosine (5FC) against Cryptococcus neoformans obtained in yeast nitrogen base (YNB) buffered at pH 5.4 correlated well with clinical outcome, while the MICs obtained in YNB buffered at the standard pH value of 7.0 did not (15). We also demonstrated that the MICs of 5FC against Aspergillus fumigatus obtained in RPMI 1640 buffered at pH 5.0 correlated better with in vivo efficacy in a murine model of invasive aspergillosis than the MICs obtained in RPMI 1640 buffered at the standard pH value of 7.0 did (D. T. A. te Dorsthorst, J. W. Mouton, J. F. G. M. Meis, and P. E. Verweij, Abstr. 44th Intersci. Conf. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., abstr. M-225, 2004).

In another study, we looked at the influence of pH on the in vitro activity of antifungal agents. We demonstrated that the in vitro antifungal activities of amphotericin B (AMB), itraconazole, and 5FC against A. fumigatus, A. flavus, and A. terreus changed at low pH (14). For both AMB and itraconazole, the in vitro activity decreased when the pH was lowered from 7.0 to 5.0, while for 5FC, the in vitro activity increased when the pH was lowered.

In this study, we investigated whether the same changes were found for the in vitro activity of AMB and 5FC against other molds (Rhizopus spp. and Scedosporium prolificans) and yeasts (Candida spp. and C. neoformans) when the pH was lowered from 7.0 to 5.0. In addition, we studied the changes in in vitro activity over a pH range of 4.0 to 7.9 to more precisely determine pH dependency.

(Results of this investigation were partly presented at the 13th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Glasgow, Scotland, 2003.)


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Isolates. Four clinical yeast isolates (two Candida krusei and two C. neoformans isolates), six clinical mold isolates (two A. fumigatus, one Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis, one Rhizopus oryzae, and two S. prolificans isolates), and two control strains (Candida parapsilosis ATCC 22019 and C. krusei ATCC 6258) were tested. The clinical isolates were obtained from the private collection of the Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, The Netherlands. Isolates had been frozen in glycerol broth at –80°C. Yeast isolates were revived by subculturing twice on Sabouraud dextrose agar plates supplemented with 0.5% chloramphenicol for 24 h and 48 h for the Candida spp. and C. neoformans, respectively, at 35°C. Mold isolates were revived by subculturing twice on Sabouraud dextrose agar tubes for 5 to 7 days at 35°C. All isolates were tested in triplicate on different days.

Medium. RPMI 1640 medium (with L-glutamine and without bicarbonate) (GIBCO BRL, Life Technologies, Woerden, The Netherlands) was buffered to pH 4.0, 5.0, 5.4, and 6.0 with 10 mM citrate buffer, to pH 5.4, 6.0, 6.4, and 7.0 with 10 mM citrate-phosphate buffer, and to pH 6.4, 7.0, 7.4, and 7.9 with 0.165 mol/liter 3-[N-morpholino]propanesulfonic acid (MOPS; Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Steinheim, Germany).

Antifungal agents. AMB (Bristol-Myers Squibb, Woerden, The Netherlands) and 5FC (Valeant, Zoetermeer, The Netherlands) were obtained as powders. AMB was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide at a concentration of 3,200 µg/ml, and 5FC was dissolved in distilled water at a concentration of 6,400 µg/ml to prepare stock solutions. The stock solutions were held at –80°C until use.

Susceptibility testing. MICs were determined by a broth microdilution method according to CLSI guidelines (M27-A2 and M-38A) (7, 8), with the exception that other buffers were used where necessary (see "Medium" above). Briefly, serial twofold dilutions of the antifungal agents were prepared in RPMI 1640 medium. The final concentrations of the antifungal agents ranged from 0.001 to 256 µg/ml for AMB and from 0.001 to 1,024 µg/ml for 5FC. Aliquots of 100 µl of the drugs at concentrations of two times the targeted final concentrations were dispensed in the wells of flat-bottomed 96-well microtiter plates (Costar, Corning, NY).

Cell and spore suspensions were prepared spectrophotometrically and were further diluted in RPMI 1640 medium. In order to obtain final inoculum concentrations of 5.0 x 102 to 2.5 x 103 cells/ml for the yeast isolates and 0.4 x 104 to 5 x 104 conidia/ml for the mold isolates, 100-µl portions of the inocula were added to the wells. The microtiter plates were incubated at 35°C for 72 h.

After 24 h (Rhizopus spp.), 48 h (Candida spp. and A. fumigatus), and 72 h (C. neoformans and S. prolificans), growth was assessed spectrophotometrically at 405 nm with a microplate reader (Anthos htIII; Anthos Labtec Instruments, Salzburg, Austria). The optical densities (ODs) of the blanks, which consisted of uninoculated plates incubated together with the inoculated plates, were subtracted from the ODs of the inoculated plates. The percentage of growth for each well was calculated by comparing the OD of the well with that of the drug-free control based on the following equation: (OD of drug-containing well/OD of the drug-free well) x 100%. For AMB, the lowest concentration that showed no more than 10% of growth in comparison to the growth control (MIC-0) (6) and, for 5FC, the lowest concentration that showed no more than 50% of growth in comparison to the growth control (MIC-2) were taken as MIC endpoints (7, 8).

Analysis of results. In order to approximate normal distributions, the drug concentrations were transformed by logarithmic transformation to log2 values, and these values were used for the analysis of the results. The high and low off-scale MICs were included by converting to the next-higher and -lower twofold drug concentrations, respectively.

(i) Effect of pH on the MICs. In order to determine whether there were changes in the in vitro activities of AMB and 5FC when the pH was lowered from 7.0 to 5.0, the difference in in vitro activities was calculated. For each isolate, the mean log2 MIC at pH 7.0 was subtracted from the mean log2 MIC at pH 5.0. The differences in in vitro activities were given in twofold-dilution steps.

In order to determine pH dependency, we studied the changes in the in vitro activities over a pH range of 4.0 to 7.9. For each isolate, the relationship between the in vitro activities of AMB and 5FC and the pH was determined by linear or nonlinear regression analysis. Nonlinear regression was done by using a four-parameter logistic model (sigmoid curve with variable slope) known as the Emax model. The 50% effective concentration (EC50) [pH value that gives the MIC equaling the maximal MIC – 0.5 x (the maximal MIC – the minimal MIC)], the EC20 [pH value that gives the MIC equaling the maximal MIC – 0.8 x (the maximal MIC – the minimal MIC)], and the EC80 [pH value that gives the MIC equaling the maximal MIC – 0.2 x (the maximal MIC – the minimal MIC)] were calculated. For both linear and nonlinear regressions, the goodness of fit was checked by the r2 values and residuals. Analysis was carried out using the GraphPad Prism Software (San Diego, Calif.).

(ii) Effect of buffer on the MIC. In order to determine whether there were statistically significant differences between MICs obtained with the different buffers, the log2 MICs of AMB and 5FC obtained with citrate buffer at pH 5.4 and 6.0 were compared with the log2 MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer at pH 5.4 and 6.0. Also, the log2 MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer at pH 6.4 and 7.0 were compared with the log2 MICs obtained with MOPS at pH 6.4 and 7.0. Results were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U test (AMB) or the unpaired t test (5FC). Statistical significance was defined as P < 0.01.


   RESULTS
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
Almost all isolates grew well in RPMI 1640 buffered to pHs ranging from 4.0 to 7.9 after 24 to 72 h of incubation at 35°C. With the exception of the two C. neoformans isolates, the OD values of the growth controls of the other isolates (after subtraction of the OD values of the blanks) were higher than 0.1.

The MICs of AMB and 5FC found at pH 7.0 for the two control strains were within the limits recommended by the CLSI (7, 8).

Effect of pH on the MICs. In general, the MIC of AMB increased when the pH was lowered, while the MIC of 5FC decreased when the pH was lowered.

Table 1 shows the susceptibilities of the 12 isolates to AMB and 5FC determined at pH 7.0 (buffered with MOPS) and at pH 5.0 (buffered with citrate buffer). For the Candida sp., C. neoformans, A. fumigatus, and Rhizopus sp. isolates, the mean MICs of AMB increased by 3 to 6 twofold-dilution steps when the pH was lowered from 7.0 to 5.0, while for the S. prolificans isolates, the mean MIC decreased with 2 twofold-dilution steps when the pH was lowered. The relationships between the in vitro activities of AMB and the pH over a range of 4.0 to 7.9 for the 12 isolates were determined by regression analysis (see Table 2). For the Candida sp. isolates, C. neoformans AZN 467, the A. fumigatus isolates, and R. microsporus var. rhizopodiformis AZN 1185, nonlinear relationships were found. The Emax model fitted the data well, since the r2 values ranged from 0.745 to 0.918 (median, 0.864). For C. neoformans AZN 9019 and R. oryzae AZN 6373, there were also relationships between the in vitro activities and the pH, but this could not be confirmed by regression analysis. For the S. prolificans isolates, no relationship was found. Figure 1 shows the relationships between the in vitro activities of AMB and the pH over a range of 4.0 to 7.9 for C. neoformans AZN 467, A. fumigatus AZN 8196, and S. prolificans AZN 7901.


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  		TABLE 1. Susceptibilities of six yeast and six mold isolates to AMB and 5FC determined in RPMI 1640 buffered at pH 7.0 and 5.0a

 

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  		TABLE 2. Results of regression analysis of the relationships between the MICs of AMB and 5FC and the pH over a range of 4.0 to 7.9

 


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  		FIG. 1. Graphic representation of the relationships between the in vitro activities of amphotericin B and pH values ranging from 4.0 to 7.9 for C. neoformans AZN 467 (A), A. fumigatus AZN 8196 (B), and S. prolificans AZN 7901 (C).

 
For the Candida sp. isolates and C. neoformans AZN 467, the mean MICs of 5FC decreased with 3 to 5 twofold-dilution steps, and for the A. fumigatus isolates, the mean MIC decreased with 11 twofold-dilution steps when the pH was lowered from 7.0 to 5.0, while for C. neoformans AZN 9019, the mean MICs were almost identical at pH 7.0 and at pH 5.0. For the Rhizopus sp. and S. prolificans isolates, the difference could not be determined, because high off-scale MICs (mean MIC > 1,024 µg/ml) were found at both pH 7.0 and pH 5.0. The relationships between the in vitro activities of 5FC and the pH over a range of 4.0 to 7.9 for the 12 isolates were also determined by regression analysis (see Table 2). For the Candida sp. isolates, a linear relationship was found. The model fitted the data well, since the r2 values ranged from 0.681 to 0.906 (median, 0.767). The slopes ranged from 1.08 to 2.30 (median, 1.91) and significantly deviated from zero (P < 0.01). For C. neoformans AZN 467 and the A. fumigatus isolates, nonlinear relationships were found. The Emax model fitted the data well, since the r2 values ranged from 0.822 to 0.927 (median, 0.882). For C. neoformans AZN 9019, there was also a relationship between the in vitro activity and the pH, but this could not be confirmed by regression analysis. For the Rhizopus spp. and S. prolificans isolates, the relationships could not be determined because high off-scale MICs (MIC > 1,024 µg/ml) were found at all pH values. Figure 2 shows the relationships between the in vitro activity of 5FC and the pH over a range of 4.0 to 7.9 for C. krusei AZN 1_31, C. neoformans AZN 467, A. fumigatus AZN 8196, and S. prolificans AZN 7901.



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  		FIG. 2. Graphic representation of the relationships between the in vitro activities of flucytosine and pH values ranging from 4.0 to 7.9 for C. krusei AZN 1_31 (A), C. neoformans AZN 467 (B), A. fumigatus AZN 8196 (C), and S. prolificans AZN 7901 (D).

 
Effect of buffer on the MIC. For AMB, there was no significant difference between MICs obtained with citrate buffer and with citrate-phosphate buffer (P > 0.01). The mean MICs obtained with citrate buffer and citrate-phosphate buffer were 33.82 and 32.67 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 5.4 and 22.16 and 19.43 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 6.0. There was a significant difference between the MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer and those obtained with MOPS (P < 0.01). The MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer were approximately 1 twofold-dilution step higher than the MICs found with MOPS. The mean MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate and MOPS were 7.84 and 3.41 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 6.4 and 6.68 and 2.43 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 7.0.

For 5FC, the results of the Rhizopus sp. and S. prolificans isolates were not used, because high off-scale MICs were found (MIC > 1,024 µg/ml). For the Candida sp., C. neoformans, and A. fumigatus isolates, there were no significant differences between MICs obtained with citrate buffer and those obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer or with citrate-phosphate buffer and with MOPS (P > 0.01). The mean MICs obtained with citrate buffer and citrate-phosphate buffer were 0.67 and 0.53 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 5.4 and 1.45 and 1.53 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 6.0. The mean MICs obtained with citrate-phosphate buffer and MOPS were 4.35 and 2.25 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 6.4 and 8 and 8.22 µg/ml, respectively, at pH 7.0.


   DISCUSSION
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
In this study, we demonstrated that the in vitro activities of AMB and 5FC against yeast and mold isolates were pH dependent. The in vitro activity of AMB decreased when the pH was lowered, while the in vitro activity of 5FC increased when the pH was lowered. The effect of the pH on the in vitro activity was dependent not only on the antifungal agent tested but also on the microorganism tested. Lowering the pH affected the MICs of AMB for all microorganisms in relatively similar fashions. At acidic pH, all microorganisms appear resistant to AMB. Although this could be due to the lower activity of AMB at lower pH, another explanation could be the chemical inactivation of the drug over time. The decreases in the in vitro activities of AMB against Candida spp., one C. neoformans isolate, A. fumigatus, and R. microsporus var. rhizopodiformis could be described by sigmoid curves. The sigmoid curves showed that the decreases in in vitro activities were primarily found over pH ranges of 7.9 to 5.4 (see the EC20 and EC80 values in Table 2). For the other C. neoformans isolate and the R. oryzae isolate, the decreases in in vitro activities could not be confirmed by regression analysis. For S. prolificans isolates, no relationship was found between the pH and the in vitro activity of AMB. Lowering the pH affected the MICs of 5FC for some microorganisms more than for others. The increase in in vitro activity of 5FC against Candida spp. could be described by a linear curve, while for one C. neoformans isolate and the A. fumigatus isolates, the increases could be described by sigmoid curves. The linear curve showed that the increase in in vitro activity for Candida spp. was found over a pH range of 7.9 to 4.0, while the sigmoid curves showed that the increases in in vitro activities for one C. neoformans isolate and the A. fumigatus isolates were primarily found over a pH range of 7.7 to 5.0 (see the EC20 and EC80 values in Table 2). For the other C. neoformans isolate, the increase in in vitro activity could not be confirmed by regression analysis. For the Rhizopus sp. and S. prolificans isolates, the relationships between the pH and the in vitro activities of 5FC could not be determined because of high off-scale MICs. An explanation for the increase in the in vitro activity of 5FC could be that protonation of the NH2 group at low pH leads to a better uptake of 5FC by the fungal cell.

A limited number of other studies also demonstrated that the in vitro activities of AMB and 5FC against yeast (Candida spp. and C. neoformans) and mold isolates (Aspergillus spp.) were pH dependent (9, 14, 15).

We also demonstrated that the in vitro activity of AMB was affected by the buffer used, while the in vitro activity of 5FC was not. For AMB, the MICs found in RPMI 1640 medium buffered with citrate-phosphate buffer were significantly higher than the MICs found in RPMI 1640 medium buffered with MOPS. The difference in MICs was approximately 1 twofold-dilution step. An explanation for this difference may be that phosphate buffers are buffers that readily traverse the cell membrane and can theoretically produce unexpected interactions with antifungal agents (7, 8).

We assume that these differences in MIC do not affect the pH dependency, since we found that in both RPMI 1640 medium buffered with citrate-phosphate buffer and RPMI 1640 medium buffered with MOPS the in vitro activities of AMB against Candida spp., C. neoformans, A. fumigatus, and Rhizopus spp. decreased when the pH was lowered.

The choice of an in vitro susceptibility test and its variables is based on inter- and intracenter reproducibility, on the ability to provide a wide range of MICs that allow discrimination among resistant and sensitive strains, and on the correlation of in vitro results with clinical outcomes. Buffered medium at a pH value of 7.0 has been accepted as the standard for the in vitro susceptibility testing of microorganisms (7, 8). However, the in vitro results obtained with this standard pH do not always correlate well with clinical outcome. Viviani et al. showed that MICs of 5FC against C. neoformans isolates obtained with YNB at pH 5.4 correlated well with clinical outcome, while MICs obtained with YNB at the standard pH value of 7.0 did not (15). We also demonstrated that the MICs of 5FC against A. fumigatus obtained in RPMI 1640 buffered at a pH value of 5.0 correlated better with in vivo efficacy in a murine model of invasive aspergillosis than did the MICs obtained in RPMI 1640 buffered at the standard pH value of 7.0 (D. T. A. te Dorsthorst, et al., 44th ICAAC). Thus, there is some evidence that the predictive value of MICs of 5FC determined at a low pH is greater than those determined at the standard pH. Further studies will need to confirm this finding for 5FC. In contrast, the effect of a low pH on the MICs of AMB was similar for all microorganisms. A discriminatory effect of pH does not seem to be present.

One of the explanations for the predictive value of MICs of 5FC determined at low pH could be that the pH at the site of infection is lower than 7.4 (in the human body, the pH is carefully regulated at pH 7.4), due to the production of organic acids by fungi (in particular aspergilli) (11). Kauffman et al. described three different phases during the growth of Aspergillus species (4). These phases could be characterized by changes in medium pH. During the first phase (phase I), the fungus starts to grow and uses glucose as a carbon source. The use of glucose is associated with the production of organic acids and a resulting drop in medium pH. When glucose becomes limited, the organic acids are used as a secondary carbon source, and the medium pH rises again (phase II). After reaching a maximum, the pH stabilizes or drops slightly (phase III). The duration of phase I depends on the glucose concentration. Increasing concentrations of glucose resulted in prolongations of phase I followed by increases in pH or no increase at all. Extrapolating these in vitro growth characteristics to the clinical setting, it seems likely that, depending on the concentration of glucose at the site of infection, the fungus will produce organic acids and the pH at the site of infection will drop below 7.4. Not only the production of organic acids by fungi but also the presence of necrosis (12) and the lysozyme activities of granulocytes and macrophages (3) may lower the pH at the site of infection.

Unfortunately, the pH values at the site of infection caused by yeasts or molds are unknown. However, there are some studies in which the pHs of bacterial abscesses were determined. The pHs of bacterial abscesses varied, depending on the location and bacterial agent present, but overall they were found to be lower than 7.4. One clinical study showed that the pHs ranged from 5.7 (empyema) to 7.2 (liver abscess) (2), and another clinical study showed that the pHs of intra-abdominal and anorectal abscesses ranged between <6 and 6.87 and between <6 and 6.98, respectively (13). In intra-abdominal abscesses, pH values ranged form 6.71 to 6.85 (1).

We conclude that further studies are necessary to determine the influence of pH on the distribution of the MICs of several antifungal agents for various yeasts and molds and on the correlation between in vitro results with clinical outcome.


   FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Weg door Jonkerbos 100, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Phone: 31-(0)24-3657514. Fax: 31-(0)24-3657516. E-mail: mouton{at}cwz.nl. Back


   REFERENCES
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 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

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Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, August 2005, p. 3341-3346, Vol. 49, No. 8
0066-4804/05/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/AAC.49.8.3341-3346.2005
Copyright © 2005, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



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