Inactivation of Polymyxin by Hydrolytic Mechanism

ABSTRACT

Polymyxins are nonribosomal peptide antibiotics used as the last-resort drug for treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. However, strains that are resistant to polymyxins have emerged in many countries. Although several mechanisms for polymyxin resistance have been well described, there is little knowledge on the hydrolytic mechanism of polymyxin. Here, we identified a polymyxin-inactivating enzyme from Bacillus licheniformis strain DC-1 which was produced and secreted into the medium during entry into stationary phase. After purification, sequencing, and heterologous expression, we found that the alkaline protease Apr is responsible for inactivation of polymyxins. Analysis of inactivation products demonstrated that Apr cleaves polymyxin E at two peptide bonds: one is between the tripeptide side chain and the cyclic heptapeptide ring, the other between l-Thr and l-α-γ-diaminobutyric acid (l-Dab) within the cyclic heptapeptide ring. Apr is highly conserved among several genera of Gram-positive bacteria, including Bacillus and Paenibacillus. It is noteworthy that two peptidases S8 from Gram-negative bacteria shared high levels of sequence identity with Apr. Our results indicate that polymyxin resistance may result from inactivation of antibiotics by hydrolysis.